Working Effectively in the Aviation Industry with Aborigines

Working Effectively in the Aviation Industry with Aborigines Working Effectively in the Aviation Industry with Aborigines in Australia As the aviation industry in Australia is ever growing, its importance is also due to the fact that Australia is located on an island. This means that aviation, along with the shipping industry, provides the only means of connection to the rest of the world. Around 16 million passengers come to Australia yearly and 90% of them travel through air. The total number of licensed pilots in Australia now are about thirty thousand six hundred and seventy six with about one thousand seven hundred licensed helicopter pilots. The Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) is responsible for the safety of aircrafts and passengers and to overlook the entire aviation industry. All institutions are based on their professional cultures which are formed by different people who form the basis of that industry. The Australian aviation system is formed by people of different ethnicities and backgrounds. Like any other industry, its professional culture is heavily affected by Australias national culture. Starting from the native Australians to the modern-day immigrants, all form the basis of Australias aviation industry. While institutional racism is prevalent in Australia, this practice in the aviation industry is much less common. (Race and racism in Australia, 1988). Institutional racism refers to the way beliefs are incorporated in the social system that results in discrimination against a certain minority group. It also includes any activity; words or actions that may be derogatory to a certain group of people. (Its just how youve been brought up! An Aboriginal perspective on the relationship between the law, racism and mental health, 2001). Often times, institutional racism is covert or even unrecognized by the agents involved in it. Like every other workplace, institutional racism against aborigines in Australia is an important issue. At the same time, some writers may be biased about the role of aborigines in aviation industry, rendering them as formless, transitory, and today undefinable in character. (Local Group Composition Among the Australian Aborigines: A Critique of the Evidence From F ieldwork Conducted Since 1930, 1970). Another point that they raise is that aborigines are not fond of adapting to the new system. They would rather not work in an environment where they have to adapt. There is also a communication gap, which makes it difficult for the aborigines to adjust. Despite the popular trend and literary proofs, it has been observed that racism in Australia is within bounds. Aborigines along with other ethnic groups are given a fair chance to play effective roles at every organizational level. While there may be a communication gap, the importance of teamwork is recognized by all groups and applied at every level. It is well recognized and understood by all employees that the basis of their organization lies in the teamwork and mutual respect of every individual. The main job of the aviation industry is to facilitate their passengers and ensure their safety and to take them to their respective destinations despite their differences in class, caste and financial status. It is said that the safety and efficacy of the aviation industry is based on three cultures, its national, professional and organizational culture and all three shape how the aviation industry performs nationally and globally. (Helmreich, 1998.) For any organization to excel, it must overcome its cultural tendencies that are hindering its progress and strive to work effectively in a team-based environment. It is essential to recognize that everyone has their own designated roles in an organization. Like how a pyramid cannot stand without its base, an organization cannot stand without its employees. This is why the aviation industry in Australia is blooming. Because despite their differences they realize that they have a single goal. My experience in communicating and working with people from different ethnic backgrounds has always been positive. Since it has only been my first year as an aviation student, I have yet to have the opportunity to work alongside an Aboriginal person. However, the following is an example of how I think culture can affect communication effectiveness and the hazards that can happen as a result. During the stall-training lesson of my flight training, I was heading back towards Parafield Airport with my instructor, who is an Australian national without an Aboriginal background. I decided to use the Torrens Island Power Station as a reference point towards Parafield and fly into its direction. Shortly before passing over the power station, the instructor quickly instructed me to change my heading and diverted the aircraft south of the power station. After the flight, I was reprimanded for inducing the potential to damage the aircraft. It was at that point, I learnt that the exhaust of the power station had the potential to damage the aircrafts airframe, or even worse cause the aircraft to disintegrate mid-air. If that had occurred, the results would be disastrous with the debris of the plane falling down and causing great damage to Out er Harbor. Had I disregarded my instructors judgment, I may have caused massive damage to Outer Harbor with my aircraft. In the aviation industry, safety always comes first. If a pilot disregards safety in his or her judgment, disaster and casualties occur. This also shows the importance of communication and why effective communications is absolutely necessary in aviation industry. A small case of miscommunication may have hazardous impact, ranging from the bursting of the aircraft to causing damage to heavily crowded places, leading to loss of lives in both cases. This also creates hurdles for Thai people like myself who are not upfront about the problems and hesitate to talk to their seniors about problems. Thais generally like to be on top of their games and would rather not ask questions and lose face in front of their seniors. This may cause a huge communication gap, like in the example above. Had I not talked to my senior about the problem, we may have caused huge damage to the harbor. So far, I havent worked with anyone from aboriginal background. But I would love to experience working with them. Although we may experience some communication gaps, we share a similar goal: excelling in the service we provide to passengers and ensuring safety for the aircraft, passengers and crew that are aboard. With this in mind, we can work and learn from each other. Safety has been IATAs number one priority and they encourage aviation the industry to take all steps to ensure safety of all people involved in the aviation industry. A study done in New Zealand shows that pilots regard luck as an important factor in the safety of the aircraft (Gill, 2004). I however think that effective communication skills and following SOP guidelines is more important than just good luck. Another study has been done to measure safety in high reliability organizations (HROs) using the traditional measures of incident and accident reporting during periods of deliberate organizational change (Lofquist, 2010). This also encourages the promotion of healthy environment and importance of team work, and how effective teamwork can overcome all sorts of hurdles, may it be language barriers or communication gaps. References: Birdsell, J.B., 1970. Local group composition among the Australian Aborigines: a critique of the evidence from fieldwork conducted since 1930. Current Anthropology, 11(2), pp.115-142. McConnachie K, Hollingsworth D, Pettman J. 1988.ÂÂ   Race and racism in Australia. Bolt RJ. 2001. Its just how youve been brought up! An Aboriginal perspective on the relationship between the law, racism and mental health. Helmreich, Robert. 1998. Building Safety on the Three Cultures of Aviation. Gill, G.K. and Shergill, G.S., 2004. Perceptions of safety management and safety culture in the aviation industry in New Zealand. Journal of Air Transport Management, 10(4), pp.231-237. Lofquist, E.A., 2010. The art of measuring nothing: The paradox of measuring safety in a changing civil aviation industry using traditional safety metrics. Safety science, 48(10), pp.1520-1529.

Operation management of Primark and Atlas Honda

Operation management of Primark and Atlas Honda INTRODUCTION The report describes the operation management of PRIMARK and the ATLAS HONDA LIMITED PAKISTAN which are two different companies in two different industries. PRIMARK in garment industry is a big retailer in the high streets for the readymade cloths which is basically belongs to tertiary sector (service) in which it distribute/sell the manufactured goods(cloths)in his retail stores and the ATLAS HONDA is a joint venture which manufacture and sell automobiles which is in manufacturing industry. This report is structured in a way that describe both companies 1: Competitive priority 2: Marketing strategy and also compare and contrast their operations in their industries and report also include the analysis of their internal factors as capacity planning, inventory management, quality control and the external factors as environment, innovation. After the report we will be able to understand the operating management of the two different industries which help us to gain knowledge to design one best operating model which help us in both industries. Before forwarding to the report structure as discuss above we need to know about both companies to be familiar with their operations. PRIMARK PRIMARK is the subsidiary company within the ASSOCIATED BRITISH FOODS and one of the biggest retailer in UK who sell readymade clothes with stylish fashion, design and variety at affordable prices. It focus on womenwear, menwear, childrenwear and home products. In 1969 the first store opened in DUBLIN(IRELAND) in the name of first Pennys store and till 1973 the number of stores reached at18 in all around the IRELAND, in the following year it expanded to GREAT BRITAIN and opened his first stores in DERBY and BRISTOL and in within next 10 years the number of stores become 22 in each. After expansion to GREAT BRITAIN, in 1995 PRIMAK applies the acquisition policy in his expansion and acquire first BHS ONE-UP discount chain in UK 16 stores,then CO-OP with 11 stores, 11stores from retreat ion of A C. After 2005 PIMARK moved to Europe for more expansion and opened stores in SPAIN,PORTUGAL,HOLLAND,GERMANY,BELGIUM. Till September 2010 it has 150 stores in UK. Its competitors are NEXT, ZARA, GAP, RIVER ISLAND etc which compete in different bases of competitive advantage. We take only UK market for the Primark business operation. http://www.primark.co.uk/page.aspx?pointerid=eb44df4565934edca627dac6ec12145a Last access 10th march 2011 ATLAS HONDA LIMITED (AHL) PAKISTAN ATLAS HONDA LIMITED PAKISTAN is a joint venture of ATLAS GROUP and HONDA MOTOR CO.LTD which manufacture and sell motorcycles. The company was created by the merger of Panjdayar LTD and Atlas Autos LTD, in 1988. AHL manufactures and markets Honda motorcycles in collaboration with Honda Motor Company. The Company also manufactures various hi-tech components in-house in collaboration with leading parts manufacturers like Showa Atsumitech, Nippon Denso and Toyo Denso. Honda motorcycles are by far the largest selling motorcycles in the country with an unmatched reputation for high quality, reliability and after-sales-service. ATLAS HONDA manufactures four models of motorcycles 1: CD 70 2: CD 100 3: CG 125 4: CG 125 DELUXE Company has two big inhouse manufacturing capability at Karachi (Sindh) which manufactures 300 units of CD 70 only and Sheikupura (Punjab) plants which manufactures all four models. A vast and growing network of over 1600 sales service and spare parts dealers has been established in all over the country. Company has more than 60% of market share in Pakistan motorbike industry, it exports the products to Bangladesh and Afghanistan. http://www.atlashonda.com.pk/company. Last access 10th of march 2011 COMPARISON/CONTRAST OPERATIONS IN BOTH ENTITIES In any organization the operation function is the part of organization which produces the products and services for that entity, it is not called with same name all the time but it is concerned with managing the core purpose of organization which produce some mix of products and services. nigel slack, stuart chambers, robert johnston , alan betts (2009).operations and process management. 2nd ed. england: pearson education limited. 1-1. In another words the operation is defined as the systematic design, direction and control of process that transform input into services and products for internal, as well as external. Primark and Atlas Honda are two different companies in two different industries, one is a retailer in service industry and 2nd is in manufacturing industry. the service sector create value or add value to the product and manufacture industry produce the tangible product so some similarities and contrast appeared in their operations which can be analyzed and criticize on the basis of their marketing strategy and their competitive priority. MARKETING STRATEGY Market strategy is developed by the entities to fill the gap between current performance and the forecasted performance which is the objective/targets of the entity to achieve, so the company develop the marketing strategy for its product in target market for targeted customers to make them aware to the products and service it provides. Cim,bpp, 76-77 2008 We can use the Ansoffs growth model which is used to analyze the product and market of the company in its marketing strategy. cim (2007). professional diploma in marketing. 3rd ed. london: BPP. 76-78.http://franteractive.net/resources/Ansoff-Matrix.GIF We will use this model to define and criticize the marketing strategy of the Primark and Atlas Honda. MARKETING STRATEGY STRATEGY PRIMARK AHL Market penetration Y N Product development Y Y Market development Y Y Diversification N N Primark has its objective of DELIVERING VALUES AND TRADE ETHICALLY http://www.primark.co.uk/ethical/values last access 10th march 2011 Primark use the leaflets drop, ads on bus shelters, the London Underground and radio ads. university of wales, marketing, database source complete Above marketing strategy used by Primark for his new stores in BRITAIN and it opened six more new stores one of which is in the oxford circus. According to Ansoff model we can explain the marketing strategy of Primark as follows Market development strategy which is in new market in existing product so the entry from Ireland and to Britain and other European countries is the example of entry in new market. Product development is in new product in new market, so Primark products are women, men, child wears but it include homemade garments as well, product development strategy basically elicited the customers to come in the store for all his garment needs. But the problem in market development strategy is the high distribution cost which Primark used to distribute his merchandise which it get form Asian countries and distribute them to his different stores which cost him high and reduce his profit. http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/jun2009/gb20090616%5f4 498429.htm. Market penetration is to enter in the market with the low price to compete in the market as the GILLETTE company sell his MACH 3 new product in the market on 60% of cost which is the best example of market penetration to enter in the market with low price, so the entrance of Primark in the BRITAIN garment industry is the market penetration in the presence of GAP,NEXT etc, with low cost strategy, but market penetration strategy has the main criticize is that it starts the price war in the market and through the small entities out of business Diversification is to diversify from the industry to another industry which comes into unrelated diversification so the parent company of Primark ASSOCIATED BRITISH FOOD, who diversify from food to garment is the unrelated diversification. But Primark has it self not any diversified activity in any other industries. ATLAS HONDA use mostly the electronic media for his products marketing as internet, television ads, salesmen etc. For CD 70 and CD 100 Atlas Honda target middle income families and mostly these bikes used in villages due to the brand loyalty and durability. CG 125 and CG125 DELUXE these both bikes target the special segment of market with the customers who want to pay more for high speed and beauty of the products. DIVERSIFIATION is the Honda joints venture in Pakistan as Atlas Honda is his related diversification in motorbike industry. The problem with Atlas Honda in his joint venture is that it manufacturing units in Pakistan and the changing political parties and insecurity affecting its this diversified product making units which affect the motorbike production and the business as well. Product Development is the four type of product CD 70, CD 100, CG125, CG125 DELUXE are the example in market for product development, the Atlas Honda believe in quality in return of high prices which opened the ways for his competitors with low cost and low price strategy like Chinese company STAR, SOHRAB, LIFAN etc. which affect the market share ( 63% in Pakistan) and the profit of the company. Market Development strategy of ATLAS HONDA is it exporting the products to Bangladesh and Afghanistan is its market development in other countries, this means the distribution cost will be high for Atlas Honda and affect his sale and profit in the market. COMPETITIVE PRIORITY Competitive priority include low cost operations, top quality, consistent quality, delivery speed, on time delivery, development speed, customization, variety and volume flexibility, these are the competitive priorities which set a company aside and superior to the rest of the companies in the industries by the result of his operations, it is not necessary that a company acquire all of them to compete but it can get any mixture of them to perform well. Under we show the similarity and contrast in the competitive priority of the PRIMAK and ATLAS HONDA LIMITED. It is need to be cleared that under the table the element of competitive priority is categorized in four broad concepts. COMPETITVE PRIORITY C.P PRIMARK ATLAS HONDA LTD QUALITY TOP QUALITY N Y CONSISTANT QUALITY Y Y COST LOW COST OPERATIONS Y N TIME DELIVERY SPEED N Y ONTIME DEIVERY N Y DEVELOPMENT SPEED Y Y FLEXIBILITY CUTOMISATION N Y VARIETY Y Y VOLUME FLEXIBILITY Y Y QUALITY Quality is different for different customers, quality is simply defined as the completeness of features, value for money, conformance of specification, reputation. Consistent quality In the case of Primark and the AHL both companies products have the similar feature of consistent quality as in the Primark in garment industry sell fashion cloths for men, women, children and homemade products and AHL in motorbike industry both meet their design and specifications on the continuous basis to maintain the consistent quality of their products Top quality on the other hand the AHL is manufacturing and selling the top quality motorbikes in the motorbike industry of Pakistan thats why AHL has 63% market share in the market but the Primark is selling low quality products in the garment industry of Britain against his major competitors GAP, NEXT, ZARA which is the major difference in both of companies. COST Cost feature include manufacturing cost, value added cost, running cost, service cost and selling price is included Low cost operations: Primark is the strategy of low cost on which it sell its outsourced garment products to the customers by adding its services with its efficiently designed and operation process (appendix 2).so this strategy in the motorbike industry of AHL in Pakistan is applied by Star company and Titan company is the example of low cost operations. So in the Primark business the low cost operations credit goes to its supplies from its suppliers who operating their activities in low wage and other low production cost countries like Bangladesh. But the AHL is differentiate strategy for its product so its premium charges for his products in the market and this example in the garment industry is the ZARA, NEXT, GAP etc in the garment industry of UK. AHL operations are in house system in which a efficient manufacturing process is undertaken with all new production and management techniques (JIT, MRP, TQM)and charge the highest price in the market. (appendix 1show the process of operation in both companies) TIME Time included the delivery time, manufacturing lead time, due date, frequency of delivery, rate of production of the entity. AHL has its two manufacturing plants one is in Karachi and 2nd is in Shekhupura, AHL has Karachi plant produce 300 units of motorcycle per day. AHL has design its process efficiently to minimize the manufacturing lead time and fulfill the customers orders on time but again this internal efficiency depend on suppliers relation and efficient supply chain. The production example given 300 units for Karachi plant is the best example of manufacturing speed which is short and good for the company and this in return help on time delivery system where demand occur. The Primark outsourced its garment products from ASIAN countries mainly from Bangladesh, so according to the nature of the business in its industry the Primark has face fast development speed in the products because its products become out of fashion very fast so Primark has need the good relationship with its supplier because of its fast changing industry nature so wants the continuous deliveries. AHL also used the product development in its manufacturing plants in KARACHI and SHEHUPURA for introduction of new products. FLEXIBILITY Flexibility include the customization, variety and the volume of the production. The AHL production have all the customization, variety and volume features are included for example the four different products it produce is one feature of customization, variety and volume in production process is to support larger volume production and quickly manage within fluctuating demand which is again come in AHL production system in which it produce four type of customized motorbikes for targeted customers market with the production capacity of 600000 per year. The variety and volume flexibility is also seen in the Primark retail stores in which large amount of fashion cloths for all men, women and children are on the shelf and in the warehouses but the customization is in the product is not inside its process because it sell the products TO general public in the market. B: criticize 1: CAPACITY MANAGEMENT Capacity information is used by the companies to analyze and maximize their output, understand the companies capacity cushion and use the information for long and short term decision for expansion strategies. Capacity planning is a systematic approach to three issues pertaining to capacity,estimating the amount of capacity required, evaluating the alternative methods to augmenting the capacity and devising methods to use capacity effectively. b.mahadeven (2007). operations management theory and practice. new delhi: dorling kindersley. 219-221. The firm go through the situation of overcapacity, appropriate capacity and inappropriate capacity. The size, time and capacity become the constrains in the organizations. The company use the expansion and see and wait policy to cope when they face the constrains for example the BRITISH AIRLINE use the seats as his capacity, PRIMARK floor space and the ATLAS HONDA use his machines or the process in the one constrain theory as a capacity which become the constrain at the time of demand. In short time company use to manage itself within capacity but in long term it use to expand by acquisition or investment in the operation process. The capacity management take long time to manage if it applied by expansion policy with the large investment in operations to cope with demand but in short term lose the increased demand. Capacity planning included the judgment with based on the experience and the capacity planning used to get the economy of scale but after an specific point this benefit turns into the marginal increased unit cost which start to reducing the profit. b.mahadeven (2007). operations management theory and practice. new delhi: dorling kindersley. 219-235. Inventory management. Inventory management can be defined as Systems and processes that identify inventory requirements, set targets, provide replenishment techniques and report actual and projected inventory status. The companies use the different inventory methods for managing inventories 1: Just in time (JIT) In the JIT method the company use the pull strategy according to which it place orders when it requires for production or demand by customer. CIMA P7, CIMA PUBLISHER,2005 2: Economic Order Quantity(EOQ) The EOQ system is a quantitative method for inventory management , which minimize the inventory holding cost and ordering cost by use of a formula : à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡2*A*CP/CH 3: SAFETY STOCK Is a PUSH POLICY, safety stock is normally used traditionally to cope with unanticipated demand so the large buffer stock is retained in the big warehouses to manage with the unforeseen demand otherwise the company lose the sales and there will emerge the danger to lose the customer so company pay more to stock the inventory and pay more to stocking. 4: ABC INVENTORY is use to cauterize the inventory according to their value in organization . The companies used to manage their inventory because on average, 56 cents out of every dollar of revenue (i.e. 56 percent of revenue) to cover the direct cost of purchased goods, with this percentage figure being even higher for the typical wholesaler or retailer (Monczka et al., 2002; Handfield, 2002). Add to this figure the indirect cost of having to manage inventory of purchased goods (which has been estimated to be 30-35 percent of the value of purchased goods see Chase et al., 2004)and the total cost of purchased goods inventory can be quite alarming. The inventory management need the investment and warehouse which used by PRIMARK who received the outsourced supplies and distribute to other stores in Europe which cost him high and reduce profit. The inventory management polices as JIT and ABC systems want the basic changes in operation and the process and affect the emplyees as well to understand the them. New inventory policy as JIT want supplier commitment because it change the whole supply chain and want the amendment in suppliers system so it affect all supply chain system. organizational management and information system,2005,oxford,c.i.m.a The PRIMRK and the AHL need to decide the inventory management system before the decision of capacity management because the JIT system not need high investment on expansion policy. PERFORMANCE MEASURE Here we use two type of performance measure 1: Multidimensional performance measure Balance scorecard 2: Qualitative performance measure Matrices 1: BALANCE SCORECARD The balanced scorecard translates mission and strategy into objectives and measure into four different perspectives provide a framework, a language, to communicate mission and strategy, it uses measurement to inform employees about the drivers of current and future success. By articulating the outcomes the organization desires and the drivers of those outcomes, senior executives hope to channel the energies, the abilities, and the specific knowledge of people throughout the organization towards achieving long term goal. It should be used as a communication, informing, and learning system not controlling. (adopted, Kaplan and nortan, 1996, p.25) Balance scorecard does not lead to a single aggregate summary control for example if we use RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI) it conveniently show how things are going. No clear relation between the BSC and shareholders value. Measure may give conflicting signals and confuse management. For example high customer satisfaction lead to falling financial indicators. BSC involves substantial shifts in corporate culture to implement. So if the AHL and the PRIMARK use the balance scorecard for their performance measure the above problems also occur in the system. So the capacity management and the inventory management comes in the internal business process part of the balance scorecard. Supply chain value Normally porters value chain model used for analyzing the operating process in manufacturing industry but we can use it in service industries as well. These activities are linked with each other to create value for the customer in the product and service. (appendix 1 shows the value chain of both companies). But the supply chain value add two more componenets in the value chain. Supply value chain à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ company value chain à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ customer value chain According to a July 16 report in The Wall Street Journal, Nissan Motor Co. halted production at four factories in Japan and at two auto manufacturing plants in the United States for three days in July due to a delay in the shipment of engine control units from supplier Hitachi Ltd. Hitachi officials said the delay was caused by a shortage of semiconductor chips from its suppliers. Nissan, which had adopted the Lean model about five years ago and dramatically reduced its inventory, said the production stoppage will reduce the companys output by 15,000 vehicles. However, Lean expert Matt Wrye, who writes the Beyond Lean blog (beyondlean.wordpress.com), said that Nissans issues were the result of a misapplication of Lean techniques. If you had hiccups in procurement, Lean behavior would ask questions around what are the hiccups in procurement, he wrote. Then Nissan would solve [these] problems, not arbitrarily start to add more suppliers just in case they have a similar hiccup in the future. http://www.isixsigma.com/index.php?option=com_k2view=itemid=1699Itemid=156 last access 22 march 2011 Total Quality management TQM is a process and philosophy of achieving best possible outcomes from the inputs, by using them effectively and efficiently in order to deliver best value for the customer, while achieving long term objectives of the organization. r.ashley.rawlins (2008). total quality management. london: authur house. 5-10. TQM involves the three main components Customer satisfaction involve conformance to specification, value, fitness for purpose, support, psychological impression Employee involvement include cultural change, teams. Continuous improvement is based on the philosophy of KAIZEN theory, to improve in each aspect of the entity. Quality as four type of cost Prevention example check the inbound logistic Appraisal example quality of inbounds Internal failure include cost of failure before sell to customers External failure example warrantee, guarantee TQM is the continuous improvement in the product and services which is not enough because the quality is what the customer so the AHL not only continuous improve the process but also make sure the customers needs in his products. TQM is not easy to apply but it needs a long time to internalize in the companies all aspect and it is also expensive for any company for example if Primark want the quality in his services it need to implement in each activity. TQM want the employee commitment so it is not easy to get the person to do what you want . TQM wants the cultural change in the organization which is a challenge for the organization and if not implemented successfully its become the danger for the companys survival. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3257/is_n12_v47/ai_14858551/?tag=content;col1 last access 21 march 2011 1:

Free Othello Essays: Women as Victims in Othello :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Othello

Women as Victims in Othello Othello is a play that only contains three female characters. Their roles vary and it would be an exaggeration to categorize them all as victims. However, there are similarities between the three women. [1] The least involved woman in Othello is Bianca[2]. Her relationship with Cassio does not appear to be full of commitment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "What keep a week away? Seven days and nights?"   It could be argued that Cassio used Bianca somewhat.[3] The manner in which he asks for a favor creates an impression that he is experienced at sweet-talking her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "Sweet Bianca, take me this work out" The way that Cassio initially addresses Bianca is rather sycophantic, especially as the task is so menial. Therefore, the role of Bianca and her relationship with Cassio is poor. It appears that he uses her and shows little affection, only when he wants something.[4] Emilia's role is more complex in Othello. Iago likes to dominate Emilia and in many respects uses her quite badly. However, she also proves that she can be strong and show control.[5] Halfway through Act 3 Scene 3 Emilia and Iago have their first moment alone together. Iago doesn't use any romantic setting for his wife.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "now now what do you here alone?" This lack of affection, straight to the point attitude continues throughout their conversation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "A good wench, give it to me." Throughout their conversation Iago's attitude towards Emilia has no respect. He doesn't talk to her like a husband but more like an employer. Emilia may be typecast as a victim early in the play but she shows real strength at the closing stages of the play. Despite the dominance that Iago has over her she manages to undermine his position and bring about his eventual downfall. Her strength can be clearly seen in her lines   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "She give it Cassio! No alas, I found it and I did give't my husband." Her strength and determination to punish Iago leads to her death though in this respect she may be seen as a victim. In her only moment of strength she was struck down. Iago's language towards Emilia gives an impression that she may be a victim.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "Villainous whore!" and "good wench" He rarely complements her. Desdemona enjoys a much more loving relationship with her husband. Othello even says he is dependant on her. Free Othello Essays: Women as Victims in Othello :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Othello Women as Victims in Othello Othello is a play that only contains three female characters. Their roles vary and it would be an exaggeration to categorize them all as victims. However, there are similarities between the three women. [1] The least involved woman in Othello is Bianca[2]. Her relationship with Cassio does not appear to be full of commitment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "What keep a week away? Seven days and nights?"   It could be argued that Cassio used Bianca somewhat.[3] The manner in which he asks for a favor creates an impression that he is experienced at sweet-talking her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "Sweet Bianca, take me this work out" The way that Cassio initially addresses Bianca is rather sycophantic, especially as the task is so menial. Therefore, the role of Bianca and her relationship with Cassio is poor. It appears that he uses her and shows little affection, only when he wants something.[4] Emilia's role is more complex in Othello. Iago likes to dominate Emilia and in many respects uses her quite badly. However, she also proves that she can be strong and show control.[5] Halfway through Act 3 Scene 3 Emilia and Iago have their first moment alone together. Iago doesn't use any romantic setting for his wife.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "now now what do you here alone?" This lack of affection, straight to the point attitude continues throughout their conversation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "A good wench, give it to me." Throughout their conversation Iago's attitude towards Emilia has no respect. He doesn't talk to her like a husband but more like an employer. Emilia may be typecast as a victim early in the play but she shows real strength at the closing stages of the play. Despite the dominance that Iago has over her she manages to undermine his position and bring about his eventual downfall. Her strength can be clearly seen in her lines   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "She give it Cassio! No alas, I found it and I did give't my husband." Her strength and determination to punish Iago leads to her death though in this respect she may be seen as a victim. In her only moment of strength she was struck down. Iago's language towards Emilia gives an impression that she may be a victim.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   "Villainous whore!" and "good wench" He rarely complements her. Desdemona enjoys a much more loving relationship with her husband. Othello even says he is dependant on her.

Comparing Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now :: Movie Film comparison compare contrast

Comparing Heart of Darkness and Apocalypse Now   Heart of Darkness written by Joseph Conrad and "Apocalypse Now" a movie directed by Francis Coppola are two works that parallel one another but at the same time reflect their own era in time and their creator's own personal feelings and prejudices. "Apocalypse Now" was released in 1979 after two years in the making, as Coppola's modern interpretation to Joseph Conrad's novel, Heart of Darkness (Harris). Conrad's book is an excellent example of the advances writers and philosophers made in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This advance deals with civilized humanity's ability to be prepared for and know the unknown. (Johnson) Comparatively, Copolla's movie does the same in the late 1970's. "Apocalypse Now" dares to breach the edges of soldier sanity in a stressful and protested Vietnam War. One of the many similarities between Heart of Darkness and "Apocalypse Now" is race. Joseph Conrad and Francis Coppola both use white men as the characters that have dominance (Bradley). The white men not only dominate their respective crews, but also the peoples native to the country the white men are visiting. The character Conrad uses, Marlow, and Coppola uses his character, Willard, both look at the natives as though white men are the civilized culture and the native people are the savage culture (Franklin). Both works also reflect the theory that "civilized" white men that go into an uncivilized land become savage and do not return to white civilization. An example of this that is in the book is MarlowÕs appointment with the doctor. The doctor measures Marlow's skull to compare its size at the present time to the size of his skull upon his return from the Congo. The thought is that a civilized manÕs skull is a different size than a savage's skull. When Marlow asks the do ctor how what the results of this test have been in the past, the doctor comments that there are none because no civilized person has ever returned from the Congo. An example of this in the movie is when Willard faces his own personality of whether or not to complete his soldierly mission of killing Kurtz or to abort it. If he completes the mission he is still civil, if he does not, the Vietnam jungle has conquered him. The first soldier that is sent to kill Kurtz did not kill Kurtz, but in fact became one of his followers.

Einstein in love :: essays research papers

Einstein in Love: A Scientific Romance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   When I first heard saw the title of this book, I was immediately intrigued. How could Romance be scientific? It’s one thing to have science involved in romance, or to be a romantic scientist, but as much as I played with the semantics of the title I found myself being curiously sucked into its storyline. The basic premise of this book, as one might expect from the obvious title, is young Albert Einstein’s perspective of love and romance. I suppose that is entirely plausible for even a physicist to fall in love, but, rather than detail all of the gritty mathematics of physics it portrays how even the brightest, most ingenious of us all merely seeks to be normal and loved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book opens with an Eighteen year old Einstein in Zurich pondering love and many other questions. Now at first glance I thought that it might go one of two ways: It’s going to focus on Einstein’s life, or it’s going to focus on his theories. It turns out that Dennis Overbye incorporates all of Einstein’s life, or at least the early part of it, and uses the environment around Einstein as an explanation for why he might have theorized exactly the way that he did.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is true that when viewing one’s surroundings one can usually gain a better understanding of a lot of things, particularly if one understands what is going around them. This is true for Einstein, and it was one of the major points that I took with me when I finished reading this book. Though Overbye does make a slight allusion that his love, Mileva Meric, was responsible for most of his theories, the dialogue between the two is somewhat lost, as the portion that would be her accounts on Special Relativity are all in letter form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I feel that this novel is relative the seminar on Special Relativity because it portrays the Einstein we know as a young man who seeks out love, and who also desires answers to all of his questions. I feel that it is relevant not just because it is a book about Einstein, rather, because it is a book about a few great ideas: normalcy, love and of course the theory of Special Relativity. Occasionally I did find my mind wondering in the course of reading this book, but that was mainly due to the fact that I had other things running through my mind.

Mountain Man Beer CompanyBrand, Essay

MMBC is considering introducing a Mountain Man Light beer to attract younger drinkers to the brand. MMBC ultimately would like to reposition the brand to drive sales of Mountain Man Light to young people without eroding the core brand equity. The reason MMBC should consider doing this is because over the previous six years light beer sales in the U. S have been growing at a compound annual rate of 4% while traditional beer sales have been declining annually at the same rate. MMBC has been experiencing declining sales for the first time in the company’s history and needs to do something about it. For the introduction of this new light beer to succeed: †¢Mountain Man Light beer would have to not interfere with Mountain Man Lager sales and avoid the cannibalization of the original product. †¢ MMBC would have to strategically reposition themselves in a way where their brand keeps and maintains their strong image to it’s already older, blue collar, loyal customers while at the same time appealing to the younger drinkers. †¢MMBC needs to have the necessary funds to launch Mountain Man Light. †¢MMBC would need to make sure to get retailers to give them additional facings. MMBC’s goals should be to stop declining sales and solve whatever problem that’s causing lost sales, and maintaining a strong brand image while looking for marketing opportunities as well as promoting the growth of the company. To make the right decision MMBC needs to remember what has led them to be a successful brewing company. MMBC’s reputation of quality beer along with a unique flavorful taste has led the company to have a respectable market share for an old school, regional brewery and strong brand loyalty from its customers. Over the years MMBC has relied on its history and status as an independent, family owned brewery to create a certain authenticity and position the beer with its core drinkers (blue collar, middle-to-lower income men over age 45). MMBC has been recognized as one of the best beers in the nation many times leading to a strong brand awareness among working-class males in the East Central region. MMBC differentiated themselves strategically by using grass-roots marketing to spread its beer quality message by word of mouth, MMBC knows that they are not as big as Anheuser Busch and they don’t try to be. With a strong loyal customer MMBC’s brand loyalty rate is higher than the rates of competitive products. All of these factors and strategies have led MMBC to create a strong brand. In spite of its strong brand, MMBC’s decline is due to many factors. The first reason for this decline is that there has been a turn down in the beer sales in the whole US. The cause for this turn down is consumer’s acquired preference towards wines and spirits based drinks. Also, light beer sales in the US have been growing at a prospering rate of 4%, thus decreasing conventional premium beer sales by the equivalent percentage. Light beer sales accounted for 50. 4% of volume sales in 2005, compared with 29. 8% in 2001. This has definitely declined MMBC’s sale since they don’t offer a â€Å"light† beer category. Finally younger drinkers ages 21 to 27, which are not MMBC’s target market, account for more than 27% of total beer consumption and is still growing. In addition, this age group spent twice as much per capita on alcoholic beverages than consumers over 35 years of age.

Factors Influencing Career Choice Among the Senior High School Students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana

UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF VOLTA REGION, GHANA DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA JULY, 2011 UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING CAREER CHOICE AMONG THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE SOUTH TONGU DISTRICT OF VOLTA REGION, GHANA DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA (B. ED BUSINESS EDUCATION, ACCOUNTING OPTION)A Thesis in the Department of Psychology and Education, Faculty of EDUCATIONAL STUDIES Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, University of Education, Winneba, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for award of the Master of Philosophy (M. Phil Guidance & Counselling) degree JULY, 2011 DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, DANIEL KWASI GAMELI AVUGLA declare that this Thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all being identi fied and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhereSIGNATURE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. DATE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised by me in accordance with the guidelines for the supervision of Thesis laid down by the University of Education, Winneba. NAME OF SUPERVISOR: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..SIGNATURE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. DATE: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my dearest wife Rose and children: Albert, Elikplim and Herbert. ABSTRACT The researcher set out to investigate factors that influence career choice among the senior high school students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana, and the extent to which those factors influence students’ choice.Survey design was used. The main instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. Simple random sample techniques was used to select 200 students, and convenient sampling techniques used to select three administrators and three guidance and counselling coordinators for the study from the three public second cycle institutions in the District. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analysing data. The construct validity was established using factor analysis and reliability using Cronbach’s alpha.The results of the main hypothesis and the research questions postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are controlled for. This helps students learn about and explore careers that ultimately lead to career choice. This played a critical role in shaping students career choice.It was recommended that Career Education and Guidance should be introduced in the primary school to enable children to explore the world of work as young people need to make a smooth transition from primary school to the initial years of senior high school and t he Ministry of Education should allocate fund for a Guidance and Counselling activities in all basic and second cycle schools. This will enable the guidance coordinators to function effectively at their various levels of work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTI am most grateful to the Almighty God for His loving care and mercy which has made it possible for me to complete this work. I also wish to acknowledge with gratitude, the encouragement, corrections and guidance given to me by Mrs. Mary A. Ackummey and Professor M. F. Alonge, my supervisor and co-supervisor respectively for this work to be completed. I am also grateful to Professor J. K. Aboagye, the Head of Department and Dr. Richard Ofori, the Director for research at the National Centre for Research into Basic Education (NCRIBE) for their immerse assistance.He also became my final supervisor to make this work complete. I wish to express my appreciation to Messrs K. T. Agor and C. F. K. Nyadudzi, the Headmasters of Sogakope Senior High School and Dabala Senior High Technical. And also Rev. Father Gbordzoe, the Principal of Comboni Technical Vocational Institute for their assistance in allowing me to administer my questionnaires in their schools. I am grateful to Mr. C. Y. Ablana who allowed me to use his office during the period.Finally I wish to express my gratitude to all those who help in diverse ways throughout the entire work for their criticism, encouragement and corrections. Special thanks go to Dr. Asare Amoah of Department of Psychology and Education who takes his time to see to it that the necessary corrections were carried out. TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENT PAGE Title PageDeclaration i Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgement iv Table of Content v List of Tables x List of Figures xiCHAPTER ONE 1. 1 Background to the Study 1 1. 2 Statement of the Problem 4 1. 3 Purpose of the Study 5 1. 4 Hypotheses 6 1. 5 Research Questions 6 1. 6 The Significance of the Study 6 1. 7Delimitation 7 1. 8 Definition of Term s 7 1. Organisation of the Study 8 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction 9 2. 2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice 9 2. 3 Career Decision Making 17 2. 3. 1 Trait-and-Factor Theory/ Actuarial Theory of Career Development 20 2. 3. 2 Holland’s Personality Type Theory 23 2. . 3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory 28 2. 3. 4 The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 31 2. 3. 5 Super’s Self-concept Theory 32 2. 3. 6 Four-Humors Theory 35 2. 3. 7 Social Cognitive Theory 39 2. 4 Types of Career 41 2. Barriers to career choice 43 2. 6 The Role of Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in Career Choice and Development 45 2. 7 The Implications of the Study 48 2. 8 Theoretical Framework of the Study 49 2. 8 Summary 57 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3. 1Introduction59 3. Research Design 59 3. 3 Population 59 3. 4 Sample and Sampling Procedure 61 3. 5 Study Area 62 3. 6 Instrumentation 62 3. 6. 1 Assessment of Validity and Reliability of facto rs influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 63 3. Method of Data Collection 66 3. 8Data Analysis 66 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 67 4. 1Analysis of Students’ Bio Data 67 4. 1. 1 Sex Distribution of Students 67 4. 1. Age Distribution of Students 68 4. 1. 3Programme Pursue by Students 69 4. 1. 4 Intended Careers of Students 70 4. 2 Testing of Main Hypothesis 71 4. 3 Testing of Auxiliary Hypotheses 73 4. 3. 1 Sex Differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 73 4. 3. Age Differences on Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal Factors 74 4. 4Analysis of Qualitative Data 76 4. 4. 1 Analysis of Bio Data collected from Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 76 4. 4. 2 Sex Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 4. 3 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 4. Position of Respondents 78 4. 4. 5 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidanc e and Counselling Coordinators in their various institutions 78 4. 5 Qualitative Analysis of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators Data 79 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 88 5. 1 Discussion 88 5. . 1 The Extent to which Intrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 88 5. 1. 2 The Extent to which Extrinsic Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career 90 5. 1. 3 The Extent to which Interpersonal Factors Influence Students’ Choice of Career91 5. 1. 4 Problems Students face in making their Career Choice 92 5. 2 Summary of the Findings 93 5. 3 Conclusion 95 5. 4Recommendations 95 5. Suggestions for Further Studies 97 References 98 Appendix â€Å"A†- Factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 105 Appendix â€Å"B†- Validated version of factors influencing students’ choice of career questionnaire 109 Appendix â€Å"C†- Open ended question naire for Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and Administrators 113 Appendix â€Å"D†- Population of final year students in the three public second cycle institutions for 2010/2011 Academic Year. 117 Appendix â€Å"E†- Letter of Introduction 119 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2. Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks 34 2. 2 Jobs suitable and jobs to be avoided by each personality type 39 3. 1 Population of Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinators 60 3. 2Distribution of respondents by institutions 61 3. 3Item listings and factor loadings for the four-factor principal component solution 65 4. 1 Distribution of students by intended choice 71 4. Logistic regression model of career choice (white-collar job & blue-collar job) as a function of Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal factors. 73 4. 3 Summary statistics and Independent-samples T-test on their influence on the two sex groups 74 4. 4 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Extrinsic factors 75 4. 5ANOVA showing the effect of age on Intrinsic factors 75 4. 6 ANOVA showing the effect of age on Interpersonal factors 76 LIST OF FIGURESFigure Page 2. 1 Holland hexagonal model 27 2. 2 A diagram Reciprocal Causation 40 2. 3 Theoretical model of Career choice 57 4. 1 Sex Distribution of students. 68 4. 2 Age Distribution of students 69 4. 3 Distribution of the Respondents by Programme 70 4. 4 Age Distribution of Administrators and Guidance nd Counselling Coordinators 77 4. 5 Position of the Respondents 78 4. 6 Number of years served by the Administrators and Guidance and Counselling Coordinator in their various institutions 78 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background to the Study The importance of career choice among senior high students cannot be over emphasized. Students at this level are mainly adolescents who are moving from this stage of development into adulthood. Pearson Education limited (2007) defines an adolescent as a young person, usually between the ages of twe lve and eighteen, who is developing into an adult.Encarta (2009) defines adolescent as, ‘somebody in the period preceding adulthood: somebody who has reached puberty but not yet adult’. At this stage the individual is said to be going through the period of adolescence. A comprehensive study conducted in America by Remmers and Raddler (1957) cited in Horrocks (1962) indicated that one-third of teenagers after finishing high school within six months expected to be at work, though know less about how to choose a job, train for it and establish in it. â€Å"A job is a kind of work and a career is time spent in one type of job area of interest† (Kelly-Plate and Volz-Patton, 1991, p. 13). Most students have very little help in developing a career direction while still in senior high school.They are often influenced by the media, peers, and with very little knowledge of what they might primarily be interested in or motivated to do. Most of them may have a level of uncer tainty of where to get help on how to choose a career. Since career is a lifelong plan, students at this level should be assisted to enable them have a clear cut plan as it will be difficult for them at their age to see things clearly about themselves. Thinking or making a decision about one’s career and making a choice is vital. Fry, Stoner and Hattwick (1998) opine that it is never too early to begin thinking about careers when in high school. Some students may have clear career direction in mind while many of them will have little clue as to which career is best for them.Fry et al, further said â€Å"even if you are a freshman or sophomore, now is the time to begin thinking about your life beyond college† p. 561. Various people choose jobs for various reasons. A lot of people look for jobs that will pay well since everyone needs money for the basics such as food, clothes, accommodation, education, recreation and others. For many men and women, work helps define thei r identity and their sense of self-worth (Thio, 1989). They see themselves as people, who are responsible, who get things done and capable enough to be paid for the services they render. People take pride in the work they do. They also like the feeling that comes with doing their work well.People enjoy using their skills, talents and working hard to improve those skills. People work to be useful, by working; people feel that they are contributing their quota to the development of the society. They may work to take care of themselves and their family or work to help other people in the society. Most people choose jobs that will enable them interact with others. For example, journalism, teaching, and selling enable one to interact with a whole lot of people. They do not like to be alone for a long period. Their job gives them the opportunity to be with others and talk to people. It is clear that work fulfils many important needs and even those who become rich overnight still work.Sinc e no one particular job satisfies all needs, the right job can be satisfying in a very special way, and that is why it is important to think carefully about one’s own wants, needs, interests and abilities before making a choice. One needs not to joke about his choice of career. Working should not be just occupying oneself. O’Toole (1973), cited in (Thio, 1989, p. 444) opines that People with satisfying jobs have better mental health than those with less satisfying work. Thus, people who are happy with their jobs also tend to have better physical health and to live longer. Although diet, exercise, medical care and genetics are all related to the incidence of heart disease, job dissatisfaction is more closely linked to the cause of death. Each individual is faced with choosing among the large areas of occupational cluster of work.Such as agriculture, business and office, communication and media, health, hospitality and recreation, manufacturing, marine science, construct ion, arts, humanity and sciences, home economics, marketing and distribution, natural resources and environment, personal services, public service, and transportation. Rao (1992) cited in Kankam & Onivehu (2000) identified two factors that call for guidance and counselling services or activities in secondary schools one of which is the making of academic choice that in the end determines the vocational future. The origin of vocational guidance can be traced to the United States of America. Educational guidance originated from the development of vocational guidance services.In 1908 the Vocational Bureau of Boston was formed under the auspices of an American lawyer and educator; Frank Parsons to assist young men make vocational choices based on their occupational aptitudes and interest (Fruehling, 2008). Guidance began to spread as a result of Parsons’ ideas. Brewer (1942) cited in Archer (1997) put across four conditions that work together to bring about the beginning and deve lopment of vocational guidance. These are: division of labour, the growth of technology, the extension of vocational education, and the spread of modern forms of democracy. The four elements listed above were however, intensified by the First World War which led to the shortage of skilled manpower.Though in Ghana vocational/technical can be traced back to the 19th century when both the Basel and Wesleyan missionaries made a shift from the initial three R’s – reading, writing and arithmetic to agricultural and technical curriculum (Hama, 2003), guidance in Ghana started in 1955 when the Ministry of Labour, Education and Social Welfare came together and established Youth Employment Department. Its aim was to cater for the needs of the unemployed middle school leavers below the age of twenty years. By 1960, there were about thirty of such centres in the country (Ackummey, 2003). 1. 2 Statement of the Problem Searching for a job, career planning and deciding on what to cho ose play an important role in students career choices.Many students often are faced with uncertainty and stress as they make career choices. Many of them do not make adequate research on their own career nor do they receive adequate directions from their school guidance coordinators. Most of them are not aware of what goes into career choice. Many youth go into unsuitable careers due to ignorance, inexperience, peer pressure, advice from friends, parents and teachers or as a result of the prestige attached to certain jobs without adequate vocational guidance and career counselling. Lawer (2007) researched on assessing the effectiveness of career guidance in senior secondary schools in Kumasi Metropolitan District.He concluded that majority of students were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations, conditions of work, earning and other rewards of occupation, and did not have better under standing of their career interest, aptitudes and abilities. This clearly shows that majority of them were not concerned about their future career. This situation compels one to ask whether they are given the needed guidance on available careers relating to the programmes they are pursuing. Are they aware of what goes into career choice? And what specific factors influence their choice and how do those factors influence them? This study therefore seeks to find out the extent to which intrinsic, extrinsic, and interpersonal factors influence the choice of career of senior high students. 1. 3 Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to identify those factors that influence students’ decision concerning choice of career in the South Tongu District and the extent to which these factors influence their choices. In addition, the study seeks to examine the differences between intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, and interpersonal factors in making career choice. It will also attempt to find out problems encountered by students in making their career choices. 4. Hypotheses The study sought to test a logistic regression model in which Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are assumed to influence students’ career (blue/white collar jobs) in the senior high schools.The following supplementary hypotheses were also tested: 1. There will be significant sex differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. 2. There will be significant age differences in Extrinsic, Intrinsic, and Interpersonal factors. 1. 5 Research Questions The following research questions were also used to guide the researcher to carry out the study. 1. To what extent do Intrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 2. To what extent do Extrinsic factors influence students’ choice of career? 3. To what extent do Interpersonal factors influence students’ choice of career? 4. What problems do students face in making their career cho ices? 1. The Significance of the Study Many factors affect career choices of senior high school students. Identifying these factors would give parents, educators, and industry an idea as to where students place most of their trust in the career selection process. It will not only focus on factors influencing career choice among students in the South Tongu District, but also highlight career decision making tools that have implications for career counselling. In addition, it will equally provide an update study into how intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors influence career choice for others who wish to further research into this area of study. 1. 7 DelimitationThe study focuses on what goes on in the South Tongu District instead of looking at the country as a whole, hence its application to the country or larger population may not be reliable. 1. 8 Definition of Terms For the purpose of this study the following operational definitions will be used: Intrinsic factors: includ e interest in the job and personality that satisfies work. In the broader sense they are basic and essential features which form part of someone rather than because of his or her association. Extrinsic factors: include availability of jobs and how well an occupation pays or brings benefit. They also include those essential features as a result of the individual’s associations or consequences.Interpersonal factors: include the influence of parents and significant others. It is concerned or involved relationships between people. Career: is a pattern of work related to preparations and experiences which is carried through a person’s life. Job: is a piece of work carried out for a pay. Work: physical and mental effort directed towards doing something. It is a job in the broader sense. Student: refers to a learner in a senior high school. | | 1. 9 Organisation of the Study The whole study was organized in five main chapters.The first chapter deals with the background to th e study, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, hypotheses, and the significance of the study, delimitations, and definition of terms. The second chapter reviewed related literatures that are relevant to the study. It considers the previous studies on the topic. It includes other areas like factors influencing career choice, career decision-making, types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance co-ordinators in career choice, counselling implication of the study, theoretical framework of the study, and the summary of the literature review.Chapter three focuses on the methodology, the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, instrumentation- validity, reliability and method of collecting data and its analysis. Chapter four deals with data presentation and analysis, and finally, the fifth chapter covers discussion, summary of the major findings, conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for future study. CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction This chapter deals with the review of related literature. It was organized under the following sub-headings: factors influencing vocational choice, career decision-making, Types of career- blue/white collar jobs, barriers to career choice, the role of guidance coordinators in vocational guidance, counselling implications of the study, and the theoretical framework of the study.It ends with the summary of the literature review done. 2. 2 Factors Influencing Vocational Choice Adolescent occupational choice is influenced by many factors, including intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors. Kankam & Onivehu (2000) indicate intellectual ability, aptitudes, the school, family, personality, self-esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences as factors that influence people’s choice of career. In the same year, Bedu-Addo (2000) states the following as factors influencing career choice: intellectual ability, apti tudes, the school, family, personality, self concept and self esteem, values, interest, and environmental influences.Similarly, Taylor and Buku (2006) also state abilities, needs and interests, stereotype/prestige, values, the school/educational attainment, family/parental, placement, and aspiration. Mankoe (2007) lists the following as factors that influence people’s choice of career: people’s interests, abilities and personalities, people’s occupational preferences, life and work satisfaction, and employment variables. Jones and Larke (2001) researched on factors influencing career choice of African American and Hispanic graduates of a Land-grant College of Agriculture. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the factors that were related to African American and Hispanic graduates' decisions to choose (or not to choose) a career in agriculture or a related field prior to or after college.The population for this study was all African American and Hispanic graduates who received a first degree in an agriculture-related field at Texas A & M University between May 1990 and December 1997. Five hundred and fifty-one questionnaires were mailed to respondents. The research design applied was Ex post facto and both descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The findings revealed that, various commonalities and differences existed among the two groups. When respondents enrolled in their first agriculture-related course did not have a major effect on their probability that they will select an agriculture-related career. However, the role of significant others and specific job-related factors is validated in this study.But having people who were not white to encourage respondents to consider an agriculture related career, increased respondents likelihood of pursuing an agriculture-related career. Respondents were more likely to pursue an agriculture-related career if their father’s occupation was agriculture-related. Par ents’ level of education did not play a critical role in the respondents’ choosing an agriculture-related career. Salary was not considered to have an impact on respondents’ choice of their current career nor on their choice of agriculture as a career. But having limited job opportunities in agriculture led respondents’ to choose other careers. Likewise, retirement plan and job opportunities impacted respondents’ selection of a career.Issa and Nwalo (2005) conducted a research on factors affecting the career choice of undergraduates in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. Data were analysed for frequency and percentage using the cross-tabs sub-programme of the SPSS. The study revealed that majority did not make the course as their first choice but ended up in the Library School as a last resort. However, those who did were influenced mostly by previous library work experience. Available sources of information on the course include pare nts/relations and peers. There are slightly more male librarianship students than females, indicating its popularity among both sexes. That 46. 9% of them were in the 22-26 age bracket showed that the younger undergraduates constitute the majority.The study concludes that despite the evidence of improved popularity of the programme among the respondents, it remains largely unpopular among prospective undergraduates in Nigeria when compared with such other courses as Accountancy, Medicine and Law. It thus recommends that public awareness about the profession and the programme be intensified by all stakeholders if it must attract some of the best brains in the country who can meet the challenges of the 21st century librarianship in Nigeria. This work was similar to that of Jones and Larke (2001) in purpose, sample and method except that while Jones and Larke focused on African American and Hispanic graduates of college of agriculture, that of Issa and Nwalo concentrated on undergradua tes in Nigerian Library and Information Science Schools. The research design applied and instrument used would be relevant to the present study.Myburgh (2005) researched on an empirical analysis of career choice factors that influence first-year Accounting students at the University of Pretoria: a cross-racial study. This cross-cultural study examined the career choices of Asian, black and white students at the University of Pretoria to identify the factors motivating Accountancy students to become chartered accountants (CA) as only two and halve percent (609) of 24, 308 registered chartered accountants in South Africa in 2005 were black, and only six percent (1,573) were Indian. Understanding the attitudes and the perceptions of CA first-year students can help course administrators/curriculum designers to align marketing and recruiting strategies with specific personal ccupational preferences of different racial groups enrolled for local CA courses. Survey design was used. Question naires are used in collecting data with a sample population of 550 and descriptive statistics used in analysis data collected. The finding revealed that performance in Accounting at school and the advice of parent, relatives and school teachers greatly influenced the students’ decision to become chartered accountants. All the three racial groups ranked availability of employment as the most important benefit of CA career and the employment security as the second most important. The cost of education and the difficulty of qualifying as a chartered accountant were identified as a problem.The purpose, sample and method used in data collection were similar to that of the above authors except that he focused on first year Accounting Students of the University of Pretoria. His finding on cost of education as a problem was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Borchert (2002). The methodology used here would be relevant to the current work. Trauth, Quesenberry & Huang (2008) researc hed into A Multicultural Analysis of Factors Influencing Career Choice for Women in the Information Technology (IT) Workforce. This article presents an analysis of cultural/actors influencing the career choices of women in the IT workforce. They employed the individual differences theory of gender and IT as a theoretical lens to analyze a qualitative data set of interviews with 200 women in different countries.The themes that emerged from this analysis speak to the influence of cultural attitudes about maternity, childcare, parental care and working outside the home on a woman’s choice of an IT career. In addition, several additional socio-cultural factors served to add further variation to gendered cultural influences: gendered career norms, social class; economic opportunity, and gender stereotypes about aptitude. These results lend further empirical support to the emergent individual differences theory of gender and IT that endeavours to theorize within-gender variation wi th respect to issues related to gender and IT. They also point to areas where educational and workplace interventions can be enacted.This work was similar to others as far as purpose is concerned; however, it focused just on women in the Information Technology Workforce. Borchert (2002) researched on career choice factors of high School Students. It aimed at finding out how influential were factors of personality, environment and opportunities in making career choice. The purpose of the study was to identify the most important factor within these three factors that 2002 Germantown High School senior students used in deciding upon career choices. A survey was the selected instrument device with a sample population of 325 and both descriptive statistics were used in analysing data collected. The finding revealed that, personality factors were identified as most important in choosing career.Environmental factors were not significant in making their choice, though they did not show outr ight disregard for them. There are opportunities for educational facilities and industries where students find themselves intellectually qualified for certain areas but lacked money needed to complete their training. His finding on lack of money to complete their training was similar to that of Amedzor (2003) and Myburgh (2005). The research design used, data collection procedure, and areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Ferry (2006) researched into Factors Influencing Career Choices of Adolescents and Young Adults in Rural Pennsylvania.The qualitative study reported here explored factors that play key roles in rural high school seniors and young adults career choice process. Interview was used in collecting data from 12 focus groups from 11-county rural areas in the central Pennsylvania using purposeful sampling. The cultural and social context of family and community were found to be instrumental in how youth learn about careers and influent ial in the choice process. The economic and social circumstances of the broader community coloured and influenced the youth perceptions of appropriate career choice. Extension strategies that target parents and community to increase their involvement in youth career selection can promote sound career decisions. This work was similar to that of Borchert (2002).However, it used interview and concentrated on a focus group. The areas of assessing students’ choice were related to the present work. Adjin (2004) researched into career choice in senior secondary schools: a case study of Sogakope Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools in the Volta Region of Ghana and used descriptive research design. He focused on factors that influence career choice, how proficient are the counsellors in handling students’ vocational problems in making career choice and ways of improving career/vocational education. He made use of stratified sampling with a sample population of 200 r espondents and descriptive statistics was used in analysis of data.The result of the study showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. Also majority of the students of Sogakope and Dabala second cycle schools received help from their parents/guardians in choosing career and some gave no reason for making their choices. Responses collected also indicated that there were guidance coordinators in the schools who organised talks on career choice, decision making and good study habits. However, other areas like problem solving, field trips/visit, group guidance/counselling, individual counselling were not all effective. His work was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method and target group.By contrast previous research by Amedzor (200 3) and subsequent researches by Annan (2006) and Edwards & Quinter (2011) showed prestige, personality, and advancement opportunities and learning experiences respectively as the most important factors that influence choice. The research design, instrument used and the areas covered in this work were similar to the present study. Amedzor (2003) researched on career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils in Ho Township basic schools and used descriptive survey design. It focused on career guidance needs of adolescents in the basic schools, factors that militate against effective guidance services and factors that facilitate the delivery of guidance services in schools. She used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and descriptive statistics used in analysis of data.Her research showed that, prestige was the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. A nd they also need financial support for training towards their chosen careers. Most of them shared the view that they need an expert to counsel them on how to choose, train, enter and be established in a career. Majority of the coordinators were not train, and guidance activities were below average and students were not willing to approach the coordinators. Her areas of assessment are covered in the current study. Though, the researcher looked at factors that influence choice like others, it mainly focused on identifying career guidance needs of junior secondary two pupils.The sampling procedure, research design and instrument used were similar to the present study. Annan (2006) examined factors affecting career choice among senior secondary school students in Shama Ahanta East Metropolis and used descriptive survey design. He used simple random sampling and sample population of 200 respondents and also used descriptive statistics in analysis of data. This study revealed that person ality was most influential factor that influenced career choice among senior secondary students in Ahanta East Metropolis and significant others as the least factor taking into consideration (ability, personality, material benefit, home background, gender factors, and significant others).Adolescents have difficulties in how to choose a career and there was adolescent male gender biased in career choice as compared to female counterparts. It was similar to that of Borchert (2002), Amedzor (2003), Adjin (2004), Annan (2006) and Edwards and Quinter (2011) in purpose, method, and target group. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work. Edwards and Quinter (2011) researched on Factors Influencing Students Career Choices among Secondary School students in Kisumu Municipality, Kenya. The purpose of this study was to examine factors influencing career choice among form four secondary school students in Kisumu municipality, Kenya. The study was conducted us ing descriptive survey design with a population of 332 students.The data for this study was collected using questionnaire and interview schedules. The findings of this study indicate that availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences are the most influential factors affecting career choices among students. While males reported learning experiences and career flexibility as the most influential factors, females however reported availability of advancement opportunity and opportunity to apply skills as the most influential factors. However, no variance was reported for persons influencing career choice by gender. The methodology used and the purpose of the study relate to the current work.Despite the fact that much has been written about the individual variables influencing career choice, the literature review however, revealed that very little empirical studies on this subject matter exist especially regarding the factors influencing career choice among senior hi gh students in the South Tongu District of the Volta Region, Ghana and the differences that exist among these factors. This study will, therefore, serve to fill up the missing gap in this aspect of the literature. 2. 3 Career Decision Making Decision making can defined as â€Å"an act of choice by which an executive selects one particular course of action from among possible alternatives for the attainment of a desired end or as a solution to a specific problem† (Attieku, Dorkey, Marfo-Yiadom & Tekyi, 2006). It involves conscious or unconscious attempt at making a choice out of competing alternatives. It implies selecting from alternative policies, procedures, and programmes.Career decision making is vital as the country is faced with the problem of unemployment which is the result of poverty and other social vices in the country. The previous Government introduced the Youth Employment Programme to address the situation. It aimed at facilitating job creation and placement of youth in the various economic ventures as well as social services in all districts throughout the country. The programme consists of ten modules out of the JHS/SHS graduates qualify to undertake: 1. Youth in Agri-Business 2. Community Protection System 3. Waste and Sanitation Management Corps 4. Auxiliary Health Care Workers’ Assistants (Micah, 2007). However was this able to eradicate the problem of unemployment? For the hild to make a better decision about choice of career he must be helped in the areas below: – Self awareness – Educational awareness – Career awareness – Career exploration, and – Career planning and decision making (Gibson & Mitchell, 1995). Self awareness: Each child must be aware of and respect his/her uniqueness at an early age as human beings. Knowledge about ones aptitude, interests, values, personality traits, abilities and others is very essential in the development of concepts related to self and the use of these c oncepts in career exploration (value clarification, group guidance films and video tapes written assignments and standardized test).Puplampu (1998) posit that for one to make good choices, he needs career guidance or career counselling, needs to be aware of him/her self, and to have knowledge of occupations and options available. Educational awareness: It is very essential in career planning for one to be aware of the relationship between self, educational opportunities and the world of work (group guidance, games related to hobbies and recreation, guided activities). Career awareness: Students at all levels of education should be assisted to have a continuous expansion of knowledge and awareness about the world of work. At each level students’ should be assisted to develop recognition of the relationships between values, life styles and careers (through films, career days, interest inventory).They are to be aware of relationships between desirable school habit– respon sibility, punctuality, efforts, positive human relationships and good worker traits. Career exploration: This represents a well designed, planned inquiry and analysis of career that are of interest. Comparisons, reality testing, and standardised testing, and computerised programmes may be useful. Career planning and decision making: Students at this level are to be helped to take control of their life and become an active agent for shaping their own future. They need to narrow down their career possibility and then move on to examine and test these options as critically as possible.Students need to be aware of the process of decision making and choosing between competitive alternatives, examining the consequences of specific choices, the value of compromise, and implementing a decision. Students are to recognise the impact of their current plan and decision making on their future. Knowledge about the above helps students to make informed decision and enable then to cope with career development tasks posed by the society during their school period. Students at this level are influenced by what they see around them- family, friends, neighbours, televisions or in movies. That is why experts suggest that students need to be aware of themselves, and the world around them in order to fully understand and make use of information about their individual interests and what exist beyond their immediate world.It is helping them to explore their likes and dislikes, expand their understanding of the world at large, and enhance their knowledge of how business works. The whole aim is to provide students with the broadest opportunity to learn and grow. In addition to the above, the following theories will also help the individual to be equipped with personality factors, environmental factors and other factors that influences choice of career. 1. Trait-and-factor Theory 2. John Holland Career Choice Typology 3. Anne Roe Personality/Need Theory 4. The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman Theory 5. Donald Super’s Developmental/self-concept Theory 6. Four- Humors Theory 7. Social-Cognitive Theory 2. 3. 1 Trait and Factor/Actuarial Theory of Career DevelopmentIt is also called matching or actuarial approach. It is referred to as the oldest theoretical approach to career development and Parsons as the originator (Kankam & Onivehu, 2000). It is based on the measurement of individual characteristics denoted as traits and factors. Traits refer to characteristics typical of the individual over time, relatively stable, consistent in situations and provide a basis for measuring, describing and predicting behaviour. Factor refers to a construct which represents a group of traits that correlate with each other. Williamson (1939, 1949) cited in Zunker (1990) was one of the prominent advocate of trait-and-factor counselling.Utilization of Williamson’s counselling procedures maintained the early impetus of trait-and-factor approach evolving from the works of Parsons. Even when integrated into other theories of career guidance, the trait-and factor approach plays a very important role. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie the trait-and-factor theory are: 1) Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potential 2) Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation.These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile 3) It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process. 4) The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction. Some assumptions of this theory by Miller, and Klein and Wiener are below: Miller a) Vocational development is a cognitive process b) Occupation is a single event; choice is greatly stressed over development c) There is a single ‘right’ occupation for everyone; there is no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations. ) Single person works in each job; one person- one job relationship e) Everyone has an occupational choice (http://faculty. tamu. commerce. educ/crrobinson/512/tandf. htm) Klein & Wiener a) Each individual has a unique set of traits that can be measured reliably and validly. b) Occupation require that workers possess certain traits for success c) Choice of occupation is straight forward process and matching is possible d) The closer the match between personal characteristics and job requirements, the greater the likelihood for success-productivity and satisfaction (http://faculty. tamu. commerce. educ/crrobinson/512/tandf. htm) It called for clear understanding of oneself.Knowledge of job requirements, conditions of success, and true reasoning in relation to these two groups of facts. This theory is used by many career practitioners in one form or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest tests and information materials that emerged from this approach have involved and remain in use up to now e. g. General Aptitude Test Battery, occupational profiles and ever expanding computer-based career guidance programmes. Trait-and- factor theory is criticised as not able to produce a perfect match between people and jobs (Walsh, 1990) and became increasingly unpopular in the 1970s, describe as going into ‘incipient decline’ (Crites, 1981).In essence, the trait-and-factor approach is far too narrow in scope to be considered as a major theory of career development. However, we should recognize that standardized assessment and occupational analysis procedures stressed in trait-and-factor approaches are useful in career counselling (Zunker, 1990). In addition to the above, trait -and-factor theory focuses on personality factors without considering the influence of environmental factor like availability of jobs to match the individuals’ trait and interpersonal factors in career choice. And can not provide enough bases for the current studies. 2. 3. 2 John Holland’s Vocational PersonalityJohn Holland’s theory shows that there is a match between an individual’s career choice and his or her personality and numerous variables that form their background (Zunker, 1990). According to this theorist, once individuals find a career that fits their personality, they are more likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time than individuals whose work do not suit their personality. He groups individuals into six basic personality types. Holland’s theory rests on four assumptions: 1. In our culture, persons can be categorized as one of the following: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Ente rprising, and Conventional. 2.There are six modal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. 3. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. 4. Behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment (Bedu-Addo, 2000). According to Holland, realistic personality types are practical, stable, self-controlled, independent and down to earth. They enjoy working with their hands, especially in projects which allow one to be physically active, they may be a doer. These individuals are physically strong and have very little social know-how.They are oriented towards practical careers such as labour, farmer, truck driver, mechanic, construction work, engineer or surveyor, landscape architect, aircraft mechanic, dental technician, electrician, athletic trainer, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, archaeologi st, hairdresser, physical therapist, dressmaker, fire fighter, caterer, plumber, x-ray technician, etc. According to him, the investigative personality types are conceptually and theoretically oriented. Investigators are observant and curious about things around them. Typically they are inquisitive and intellectually self-confident as well as quite logical. They delight in situations that call for creative or analytical approach. They are thinkers rather than doers. They enjoy working on their own. They are best suited for careers that offer clearly defined procedures, research and the chance to explore a wide range of ideas are the best choices for investigating people, e. g. ractical nursing, medical lab assistant, pharmacist, ecologist, math teacher, medical technologist, research analyst, surgeon, dietician, physician, police detective, veterinarian, meteorologist, horticulturist, dentist, computer analyst, science teacher, technical writer, science lab technician, computer syst em analyst, military analyst, college professor, lawyer, consumer researcher, astronomer, computer security specialist, horticulture, emergency medical technology, respiratory therapy, surgical technology, dental assistant, water and waste technology, computer languages, computer sciences, economics, biochemistry, geology. According to Holland, artistic personality types are original, innovative, imaginative, and creative. They prefer situations that are relatively nstructured and interact with their world through artistic expression, avoiding conventional and interpersonal situations in many instances. They do well as painters, writers, or musicians, artist, English teacher, drama coach, music teacher, graphic designer, advertising manager, fashion illustrator, interior decorator, photographer, journalist, reporter, cosmetologist, librarian, museum curator, cartographer, dance instructor, entertainer, performer, architect, etc. According to theorist, social personality types are un derstandable, friendly and people oriented. These individuals often have good verbal skills and interpersonal relations. They are helpers and enjoy jobs that let them interact with people.They are well equipped to enter professions such as teacher, social worker, counsellor, youth services worker, recreation director, physical therapist, occupational therapist, extension agent, therapist, teacher, personnel director, funeral director, minister, chamber of commerce executive, athletic coach, claims adjuster, parole officer, attorney, sales representative, fitness instructor, cosmetologist, paramedic, mental health specialist, social worker, nurse, dietician, information clerk, child care worker, travel agent, airline personnel, receptionist, waiter/waitress, office worker, home health aide, career counsellor, etc. According to him, enterprising personality types are gregarious, dominant and adventurous. They are generally extroverted and will often initiate projects involving many pe ople and are good at convincing people to do things their way. They have strong interpersonal skills and enjoy work that brings them into contact with people.They are best counselled to enter career such as real estate appraiser, florist, lawyer, TV/radio announcer, branch manager, lobbyist, insurance manager, personnel recruiter, office manager, travel agent, advertising agent, advertising executive, politician, business manager. According to Holland, conventional personality type refers to those individuals who show a dislike for unstructured activities. They enjoy collecting and organizing information in effective and practical way. They are often like being part of large companies though not necessarily in leadership positions. They enjoy steady routines and following clearly defined procedures.They are best suited for jobs as subordinates, banker, file clerks, accountant, Business teacher, bookkeeper, actuary, librarian, proof reader, administrative assistant, credit manager, e stimator, cad operator, reservations agent, bank manager, cartographer cost analyst, court reporter, medical secretary, auditor statistician, financial analyst, safety inspector, tax consultant, insurance underwriter , computer operator, medical lab technologist, cashier, hotel clerk, etc. It has been employed as popular assessment tools such as the Self-Directed Search, Vocational Preference Inventory and Strong Interest Inventory. Dictionary of Holland occupational Code came as a result of Holland’s work. John Holland created a hexagonal model that shows the relationship between the personality types and environments. [pic] Figure 2. 1: Holland Hexagonal Model It could be noticed that the personality types close to each other are more alike than those farther away.We can see this most clearly when we compare the personalities opposite each other, on the hexagon. For example, read the description of the types for Realistic and Social. You will see that they are virtually the opposite of each other. On the other hand, Social and Artistic are not that far apart. Holland topology is based on the following key concepts: Congruence: it refers to the degree of fit between an individual’s personality orientations and actual or contemplated work environment. One is believed to be more satisfied with his career and can perform better if he is in a congruent work environment. Consistency: it refers to the degree of relationship between types or the various classifications.Types that are adjacent on the hexagon have more in common than types that are opposite. For instance, the conventional type might be more realistic and enterprising than be artistic. Differentiation: it is the establishment of differences or a difference among two or more things. It refers to the degree to which a person or his environment is clearly defined. | | Vocational identity: extent to which a person has a clear self perception of his or her characteristics and goals, and to th e degree of stability which an occupational environment provides.Holland’s theory is criticised as basically descriptive with focus on explanation of casual basis of time period in development of hierarchies of the personal model styles. He was concerned with factors that influence career choice rather than development process that leads to career choice (Zunker, 1990). This theory focus mainly on how a personality can be matched with a career rather than how other factors like environmental and/or interpersonal factors influence the individual’s choice. It is therefore limited as far as the current research is concerned. 2. 3. 3 Anne Roe’s Personality/Need Theory Akinade, Sokan and Oserenren (1996) posit that this theory see one’s need as the main determinant of the nature of an individual’s interests including vocational interest.This theorist was of the view that career choice is based on childhood orientation or experience at home to satisfy ne eds; and that people choose occupation that satisfies important needs. This theory attempts to understand, make meaning of, and utilize individual motives, purposes and drives to support career development. She believed work can satisfy needs in different ways hence classification of occupation into eight groups. According to Roe (1956) cited in Zunker (1990), the first five can be classified as person-oriented and the last three as non-person oriented. 1. Service (something for another person); 2. Business contact (selling and supplying services); 3. Organisation (management in business, industry and government); 4.Technology (product maintenance, transportation of commodities ); 5. Outdoors (cultivating, preserving natural resources); 6. Science (scientific theory and its application); 7. General culture (preserving and transmitting cultural heritage) & 8. Arts and Entertainment (creative art and entertainment) Anne Roe’s theory was based on Abraham Maslow’s hierarc hy of needs stated in this order: 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Need for belongingness and love 4. Need for importance, respect, self-esteem and independence 5. Need for information 6. Need for understanding 7. Need for beauty and aesthetic 8. Need for self-actualization